Low Voltage Operational Transconductance Amplifier Circuits

ABSTRACT

Circuits (FIG.  1 ) that operate with power supplies (VDD) of less than 1 Volt are present. More particularly, circuits (FIG.  1 ) that operate with supply voltages (VDD) near or lower than the threshold voltage of the transistors (M 1 A, M 1 B) in those circuits are presented. Various circuits and embodiments such as operational transconductance amplifiers, biasing circuits, integrators, continuous-time sigma delta modulators, track-and-hold circuits, and others are presented. The techniques and circuits can be used in a wide range of applications and various transistors from metal-oxide-semiconductor (MOS) to bipolar junction transistors may implement the techniques presented herein.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application Nos. 60/611,601, 60/627,070, and 60/704,466, respectively filed on Sep. 20, 2004, Nov. 12, 2004, and Aug. 1, 2005, which are hereby incorporated by reference herein in their entireties.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to circuits that can operate at low supply voltages. More particularly, the present invention provides circuits that function with supply voltages near or lower than the threshold voltage of transistors used in the circuit.

For some time, a trend in semiconductor circuits has been to decrease the feature size of transistors and to place more transistors in the same size area of silicon. This trend of decreasing feature size promises to bring the features of transistors into the nano-scale range so that the intrinsic speed of the devices, and thus the signal processing capability, can keep increasing. With continually shrinking feature size, supply voltages for circuits have also experienced a downward trend in order to maintain reliability, to reduce power density, and to avoid thermal problems. This downward trend in power supply voltages is beneficial for digital circuits because it reduces power consumption quadratically. However, the threshold voltages at which transistors operate have not decreased proportionally to the supply voltages because the transistors' threshold voltages cannot be reduced as aggressively. This is the case because lower threshold values create static leakage (i.e., unwanted electron/hole flow when a device is off) that would result in unacceptable circuit operation. Therefore, it is desirable to provide analog circuits that can operate with supply voltages near or lower than the threshold voltage of the transistors in those circuits.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

Various circuits that operate with power supplies of less than 1 Volt are presented. More particularly, circuits that operate with supply voltages near or lower than the threshold voltage of the transistors in those circuits are presented. These circuits include operational transconductance amplifiers, biasing circuits, integrators, continuous-time sigma delta modulators, track-and-hold circuits, and others. The techniques and circuits can be used in a wide range of applications, and various transistors from metal-oxide-semiconductor to bipolar junction transistors may be used to implement the techniques presented herein.

In accordance with certain embodiments of the present invention, operational transconductance amplifiers (OTAs) are provided. Features of these OTAs include: an active load; a differential pair of transistors having a first transistor and a second transistor, each of the first transistor and the second transistor having a gate, having a body coupled to an input signal, and having a drain coupled to the active load; and a level shift bias circuit that creates a common mode feedback and that is coupled to the gate of the first transistor, the gate of the second transistor, the drain of the first transistor, and the drain of the second transistor.

In accordance with certain embodiments of the present invention, operational transconductance amplifiers (OTAs) are provided. Features of these OTAs include: an active load; a differential pair of transistors having a first transistor and a second transistor, each of the first transistor and the second transistor having a source, having a gate coupled to an input signal, having a body coupled to a bias voltage, and having a drain coupled to the active load; and a level shift bias circuit that creates a common mode feedback and that is coupled to the drain of the first transistor, the drain of the second transistor, and the active load.

In accordance with certain embodiments of the present invention, integrators are provided. Features of these integrators include: an operational transconductance amplifier (OTA) having a first input and a first output; a transistor having a gate coupled to the first input of the OTA, a source terminal, a drain terminal coupled to the source terminal and the first output of the OTA, and a body terminal coupled to a tuning voltage that controls a capacitance formed by the transistor; and a first resistor coupled between the first input of the OTA and the first output of the OTA; and a second resistor coupled between the first input of the OTA and an input signal.

Other features of these embodiments of the present invention are provided below.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The above and other advantages of the present invention will be apparent upon consideration of the following detailed description, taken in conjunction with accompanying drawings, in which like reference characters refer to like parts throughout, and in which:

FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram of an Operational Transconductance Amplifier (OTA) with a bulk input in accordance with certain embodiments of the present invention;

FIGS. 2A and 2B are schematic diagrams of a two-stage OTA in accordance with certain embodiments of the present invention;

FIG. 3A is schematic diagram of another embodiment of a two-stage OTA with a gate input in accordance with certain embodiments of the present invention;

FIG. 3B is schematic diagram of an OTA configured with resistors for controlling the common mode voltages associated with the OTA in accordance with certain embodiments of the present invention;

FIG. 4 is a schematic diagram of biasing circuitry in accordance with certain embodiments of the present invention;

FIG. 5A is a graph of transfer characteristics of an operational transconductance amplifier in accordance with certain embodiments of the present invention;

FIG. 5B is a schematic diagram of a Schmitt-trigger oscillator in accordance with certain embodiments of the present invention;

FIG. 6 is a schematic diagram of a low-voltage damped tunable integrator in accordance with certain embodiments of the present invention;

FIG. 7 is a block diagram of a filter in accordance with certain embodiments of the present invention;

FIG. 8A is a schematic diagram of a filter in accordance with certain embodiments of the present invention;

FIG. 8B is a schematic diagram of a voltage controlled oscillator in accordance with certain embodiments of the present invention;

FIG. 9 is a schematic diagram of a track and hold circuit in accordance with certain embodiments of the present invention;

FIG. 10 is a schematic diagram of another gate-input OTA in accordance with certain embodiments of the present invention;

FIGS. 11A and 11B are schematic diagrams of a continuous-time sigma delta modulator in accordance with certain embodiments of the present invention;

FIGS. 12A and 12B are schematic diagrams of digital-to-analog converters (DACs) in accordance with certain embodiments of the present invention; and

FIG. 13 is a schematic diagram of a comparator in accordance with certain embodiments of the present invention.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to circuits that can operate at low supply voltages. More particularly, the present invention provides circuits that function near or lower than the threshold voltage of its transistors without relying upon internal voltage boosting. Low-voltage techniques which may be used in various combinations are automatic biasing to control gains and signal swings, the use of weakly inverted devices, the input of a signal at the body of a transistor, and the application of forward body bias to lower voltage thresholds. The transistors used in the composition of the various circuits presented herein may be fabricated with 0.18 μm process technologies down to nanometer process technologies. CMOS technology may be used. In accordance with the present invention, the circuits illustrated and described herein may be used as circuits of discrete components or integrated circuits as would be appreciated by one skilled in the art.

As the invention is described herein, reference is made to various forms of transistors. These transistors may include metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor (MOSFET), such as PMOS and NMOS transistors, as well as any other suitable form of transistor. In certain applications within transistors, as will be apparent to one of ordinary skill in the art, these transistors may be used as switches. In such cases, the use of the term “input” in connection with such switching transistors in the specification and claims shall mean the terminal at which current flows into the transistor (e.g., the source in a PMOS transistor and the drain in an NMOS transistor), and the term “output” in connection with such switching transistors in the specification and claims shall mean the terminal at which current flows out of the transistor (e.g., the drain in a PMOS transistor and the source in an NMOS transistor).

Also, as the invention is described herein, reference is made to various resistors and capacitors. These resistors and capacitors may be implemented with transistor-based equivalents as known in the art when appropriate.

Generally speaking, the voltage threshold of a transistor is the voltage required to switch the transistor from a blocking state to a conducting state, and the voltage threshold typically varies from a couple of hundred millivolts to a volt in standard enhancement devices (e.g., transistors formed using standard CMOS processes). In a transistor, weak inversion, moderate inversion and strong inversion describe different characteristic states of transistor operation. Weak inversion is when a transistor is dominated by a diffusion current (i.e., a current caused by a free movement of electrons), moderate inversion is when a transistor has both a diffusion current and a drift current (i.e., a current caused by an electric field), and strong inversion is when a drift current dominates. For example, in a metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor (MOSFET), weak inversion is when there is no channel in the device and the drain of the transistor is more reversed biased than the source.

In order to operate a transistor in moderate inversion (i.e., such that it is partially turned-on) when used in a half-volt circuit, the full supply voltage may have to be applied as a gate bias. However, an input signal to the transistor in this case will typically not be able to swing higher than this gate bias because it is at the maximum supply voltage, and thus portions of the input signal may be lost.

To overcome this problem, in accordance with the present invention, an input signal may be applied to the body (or bulk) of a transistor. Applying the input signal at the body of the transistor may allow the input signal to swing while the gate of the transistor is being used to put it in weak-to-moderate inversion mode of operation. The body may also be forward biased to lower the transistor's threshold voltage.

As set forth below, various differential mode amplifiers are presented. A differential mode amplifier preferably responds only to the differential voltage between its two inputs, with a voltage that is common to the two inputs (i.e., has the same amplitude and phase) being cancelled out. This is common-mode rejection. This common signal voltage is referred to as a common-mode voltage. Common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR) is the ratio of the differential mode gain over the common mode gain—see, e.g., Gray, Hurst, Lewis & Meyer, Analysis and design of analog integrated circuits, and B. Razavi, Design of analog CMOS circuits, which are hereby incorporated by reference herein in their entireties. A fully differential amplifier which is characterized by having two inputs and two outputs may use a common-mode feedback (CMFB) loop to control the common-mode voltages at different nodes and to suppress the common-mode voltage components present at different stages of an amplifier.

FIG. 1 illustrates a schematic of a low-voltage differential gain stage in accordance with certain embodiments of the present invention. As shown, the two inputs V_(in) ⁺ and V_(in) ⁻ are at the body junctions of transistors M_(1A) 114 and M_(1B) 116 (which form a differential pair). Outputs V_(out) ⁺ and V_(out) ⁻ are taken from output terminals of transistors M_(1A) 114 and M_(1B) 116. The transconductances of the bodies (g_(mb)) of these devices provide the input transconductances. Transistors M_(1A) 114 and M_(1B) 116 are loaded by transistors M_(2A) 118 and M_(2B) 120 (which act as current sources and an active load), respectively.

Resistors R_(A) 122 and R_(B) 124 feed back a signal corresponding to the output common-mode voltage to the gates of transistors M_(1A) 114, M_(1B) 116, M_(3A) 126, and M_(3B) 128 in order to provide common-mode rejection. A level shift is maintained by transistor M₄ 130 pulling a current though resistors R_(A) 122 and R_(B) 124 so that a level shift is created between node 140 and the common-mode voltage at nodes 141 and 142. Transistor M₄ 130 and resistors R_(A) 122 and R_(B) 124 form a level shift bias circuit. This level shift allows the outputs, V_(out), of the circuit to be biased at one level while node 140 is at a second bias voltage so that operation of the transistors M_(1A) 114, M_(1B) 116, M_(3A) 126, and M_(3B) 128 may be in moderate inversion. For example, with a MOSFET, a level shift between the output common-mode voltage at 0.25 Volts and the gate bias at 0.07 Volts allows the gate-to-source voltage, V_(GS), to be set. The relationship between V_(GS) and the threshold voltage is a determining factor of the inversion level in a MOSFET. Therefore, by pulling a current through R_(A) 122 and R_(B) 124 with transistor M₄ 130, the inversion level and operating characteristics of the circuit can be modified through a level shift.

As shown, the body inputs of transistors M_(3A) 126 and M_(3B) 128 are cross-coupled to the drains of these transistors in order to add a negative resistance to the output of the circuit (i.e., at V_(out) ⁺ and V_(out) ⁻) and thereby boost the differential DC gain. This cross coupling may decrease the common-mode gain as well. Transistors M_(3A) 126 and M_(3B) 128 form a cross-coupled pair.

The following two equations give the differential and common-mode DC gain for the circuit illustrated in FIG. 1, where g_(mbN) is the body transconductance of transistor N, g_(mN) is the gate transconductance of transistor N, and g_(dsN) is the output conductance of transistor N.

$\begin{matrix} {A_{diff} = \frac{g_{{mb}\; 1}}{g_{{ds}\; 1} + g_{{ds}\; 3} + g_{{ds}\; 2} + {1/R} - g_{{mb}\; 3}}} \\ {A_{c\; m} = \frac{g_{{mb}\; 1}}{g_{{ds}\; 1} + g_{{ds}\; 3} + g_{{ds}\; 2} + g_{{mb}\; 3} + g_{m\; 1} + g_{m\; 3}}} \end{matrix}$

In certain embodiments, M_(3A) 126 and M_(3B) 128 may be sized so that g_(mb3) cancels out approximately 60 percent of g_(ds1)+g_(ds3)+g_(ds2)+1/R, which may result in a differential gain boost of 8 dB. Furthermore, operation near the weak to moderate inversion boundary may provide a relatively large transconductance of the body (g_(mb)), which may be useful when inputting signals to the body of a transistor because of a consequent gain increase.

As shown, where an input common-mode is at V_(DD)/2 (i.e., V_(in)+ and V_(in)− being equal to 0.25 Volts in common mode), a forward bias on, for example, the body-source junction (V_(BS)) of a MOSFET may be introduced. A larger forward bias voltage may lead to greater threshold voltage reduction, but the body (or bulk) leakage current may increase exponentially with the amount of forward bias and the temperature. This body leakage current can be limited by constraining the forward bias voltage V_(BS) to about 0.4 Volts, and such a forward bias may effectively lower the voltage threshold and increase the inversion level from those typically associated with a transistor. The use of body bias may be accomplished without much risk of latch-up because the supply voltage limits the voltages in the circuit, which in certain embodiments is less than 1 Volt. For example, a supply voltage V_(DD) of 0.5 Volts may not be enough to forward-bias parasitic pn junctions to a sufficient degree to allow latching to occur.

FIG. 2 illustrates a two-stage differential operational transconductance amplifier (OTA) 210 in accordance with certain embodiments of the present invention. In other embodiments, more stages may be cascaded in a similar fashion to two-stage amplifier 210. Two-stage OTA 210 may be broken down into stage one 212 and stage two 214. As described herein and shown in the figures, stage two transistors and resistors are denoted with a prime symbol.

The circuits of stage one 212 and stage two 214 are similar to circuit 100 of FIG. 1. However, Miller compensation capacitors Cc 216 with series resistors Rc 218 are added for zero cancellation to stabilize the amplifier. Bias currents have also been applied at bias inputs biasn 220 and biasi 222 and are reflected throughout the OTA by current mirrors composed of transistors M₂ 224, M_(2A) 226, M_(2B)′ 228, M₄ 230, M₄ 232, and M₄′ 234. For example, biasn may be 40 μA and biasi may be 4 μA.

The frequency response of OTA 210 may have a gain-bandwidth product approximately given by g_(mb1)/(2πCc), where g_(mb1) is the body transconductance of the input transistors of the first stage, and may have a second pole given by g′_(mb1)/(2πC_(L)), where g′_(mb1) is the body transconductance of the input transistors of the second stage and C_(L) 260 is a load capacitance.

As recited above, the transistors of OTA 210 operate in a similar fashion to the transistors described in connection with FIG. 1. As shown, transistors M_(1A) 236 and M_(1B) 238 and transistors M_(1A)′ 244 and M_(1B)′ 246 each form a differential pair which takes the input for the respective stage. Transistors M_(3A) 240 and M_(3B) 242 and transistors M_(3A)′ 248 and M_(3B)′ 250 form a cross-coupled pair. Level shifters as described herein may be formed from stage one 214 resistors R_(A) 252 and R_(B) 254 along with transistor M₄ 232, and stage two 214 resistors R_(A)′ 256 and R_(B)′ 258 along with transistor M₄′ 234. Transistors M_(2A) 225 and M_(2B) 226 and transistors M_(2A)′ 227 and M_(2B)′ 228 form an active load for transistors M_(3A) 240 and M_(3B) 242 and transistors M_(3A)′ 248 and M_(3B)′ 250, respectively.

An example of some values for transistor sizes and other components for OTA 210 can be found below:

Transistors Width (μm) Length (μm) M1A, M1B 240 0.5 M2A, M2B 75 0.5 M3A, MSB 40 0.5 M4 3.5 1 Value Resistors RA, RB 100 kΩ Rc 6.5 kΩ Capacitors Cc 6 pF

FIG. 2B illustrates a symbolic representation of the circuit described above in connection with FIG. 2A. Alternatively, the circuit described in connection with FIG. 2A can be represented more simply as shown in FIG. 1B.

FIG. 3A illustrates another two-stage differential OTA 300 in accordance with certain embodiments of the present invention. OTA 300 consists of first stage circuit 346 cascaded with a similar second stage circuit 348 to obtain a greater DC gain. As may be appreciated by one skilled in the art, additional stages can be added as desired to change the gain as well as other characteristics of the circuit. A two-stage example was chosen to illustrate how additional stages may be added in accordance with certain embodiments of the invention.

In FIG. 3A, the DC output CM voltage may be set to 0.4 Volts at the drains of transistors M_(1A) 310 and M_(1B) 312, respectively, to bias second stage circuit 348. Likewise, the DC output CM of second stage circuit 348 may be set to 0.25 Volts to accommodate a maximum output signal swing between ground and the supply (where the supply is 0.5 Volts DC in this example).

Transistors M_(1A) 310 and M_(1B) 312 are a differential pair that amplifies differential inputs V_(in) ⁺ 314 and V_(in) ⁻ 316. Devices M_(2A) 318, M_(2B) 320, M_(3A) 322, and M_(3B) 324 (which may be PMOS devices) form an active load and are used to load transistors M_(1A) 310 and M_(1B) 312. The gates and bodies of devices M_(2A) 318, M_(2B) 320, M_(3A) 322, and M_(3B) 324 are coupled to add their body-source transconductances to the overall transconductance of the respective transistors, as well as to lower their voltage thresholds V_(T).

Devices M_(2A) 318, M_(2B) 320, M_(3A) 322, and M_(3B) 324 may be DC biased at about 0.1 Volts to forward bias the transistor's junction and bring the transistors close to or in moderate inversion during operation. Transistor M₇ 326, which is coupled to transistors M_(1A) 310 and M_(1B) 312, may pull a level-shifting current through resistors R_(1A) 328 and R_(1B) 330. This level-shifting current allows the output voltage to swing into positive and negative values because the output common-mode voltage of the OTA can be set without compromising its inversion level. In this way, resistors R_(1A) 328 and R_(1B) 330 also set the output common-mode voltage at transistors M_(2A) 318 and M_(2B) 320. Transistors M_(2A) 318 and M_(2B) 320 may also provide local common-mode feedback.

In some embodiments, the bodies of transistors M_(1A) 310 and M_(1B) 312 are biased through the generation of a bias voltage V_(bn) 332, which is discussed in further detail with reference to FIG. 4 below.

As also shown in FIG. 3A, a common-mode feed-forward (CMFF) cancellation path may be provided through M_(5A) 334, M_(5B) 336, M₆ 338, M_(3A) 322, and M_(3B) 324 to add an additional load to input transistors M_(1A) 310 and M_(1B) 312. The gates of M_(5A) 334 and M_(5B) 336 are coupled to the gates of transistors M_(1A) 310 and M_(1B) 312. As shown, the transistors of the CMFF cancellation path may receive a bias voltage, V_(bn) at their body terminals to forward bias the transistors. Alternatively, the bodies of the transistors may be coupled to their gates.

As illustrated, a cross-coupled pair, M₄ 340 and M_(4B) 342, may be used with the differential pair M_(1A) 310 and M_(1B) 312 to decrease the output conductance and increase its DC gain. The body voltage of the cross-coupled pair, V_(NR) 344, sets the gain of the amplifier. The cross-coupled pair also provides a negative resistance load to the first stage of the amplifier. The amount of negative resistance may be controlled through the bodies of the cross-coupled pair by changing the voltage threshold of transistors M₄ 340 and M_(4B) 342. The generation of V_(NR) 344 is discussed in further detail with reference to FIG. 5B below.

As illustrated, second stage circuit 348 includes transistors M_(8A) 350, M_(8B) 352, M_(11A) 354, M_(11B) 356, M_(12A) 358, M_(12B) 360, M₁₄ 362 M_(9A) 364, M_(9B) 366, M₁₃ 368, M_(10A) 370, and M_(10B) 372, resistors R_(2A) 374 and R_(2B) 376. Transistors M_(8A) 350 and M_(8B) 352 form a differential pair, transistors M_(11A) 354 and M_(11B) 356 form a cross-coupled pair, transistors M_(9A) 364 and M_(9B) 366 act as an active load, transistors M_(12A) 358, M_(12B) 360, M₁₃ 368, M_(10A) 370, and M_(10B) 372 form a CMFF cancellation path, and transistor M₁₄ 362 and resistors R_(2A) 374 and R_(2B) 376 form a level shifting circuit. These transistors and resistors operate in a similar fashion to the corresponding transistors and resistors of first stage circuit 346 as described herein.

For a CM of 0.25 Volts DC, the gates of devices M_(11A) 354 and M_(11B) 356 are connected to the inputs of the stage. The bodies of devices M_(11A) 354 and M_(11B) 356 may be cross-coupled to boost the differential gain, and devices M_(11A) 354 and M_(11B) 356 may be sized conservatively so that devices M_(11A) 354 and M_(11B) 356 need not be tuned.

Operational Transconductance Amplifier (OTA) 300 may be stabilized with Miller capacitors Cc 378 and series resistors 380 across the second stage.

An example of some values for transistor sizes and other components for the circuit 300 of FIG. 3A can be found below:

First Stage Second stage Transistors W (μm) L (μm) Transistors W (μm) L (μm) M1A, M1B 72 0.36 M8A, M8B 100  0.36 M2A, M2B 270  0.36 M9A, M9B 240  0.36 M3A, M3B 270  0.36 M10A, 240  0.36 M10B M4, M4B  9 0.36 M11A, M11B 25 0.36 M5A, M5B  9 0.36 M12A, M12B 10 0.36 M6   67.5 0.36 M13 48 0.36 M7 64 0.36 M14 32 0.36 Resistors and Capacitors R1A, R1B 25 kΩ R2A, R2B 20 kΩ  Rc 2 kΩ Cc 3 pF

FIG. 4 illustrates bias circuitry 400 for generating V_(bn) and V_(L). As shown, this circuitry is formed from portions 420, 432, and 434 that generate Vamp, V_(bn), and V_(L), respectively.

Turning to portion 420, which generates V_(amp), it can be seen that this portion is made up of resistors 470 and 471, error amplifiers 411, 412, and 413, capacitor 418, and resistor 419. Resistors 470 and 471 form a voltage divider that is used to generate a voltage Vx at node 414. Error amplifiers 411, 412, and 413 are each formed from an inverter configuration of transistors 415 and 416 that amplifies the difference between its input voltage (e.g., Vx at node 414 for amplifier 411) and the switching threshold voltage of the inverter. In this way, a correction voltage is generated at the output of the inverter. The switching threshold of the inverter is the input voltage at which the inverter may swing from a high output to a low output, and vice-versa. The switching threshold can be set by sizing the transistors in the inverter, and can be modified by changing the voltage threshold of the transistors. In preferred embodiments, the switching threshold may be set to V_(DD)/2.

More particularly, error amplifiers 411, 412, and 413, capacitor 418, and resistor 419 work together as follows. If the switching threshold of error amplifier 411 increases above Vx, the output voltage of error amplifier 411 and input voltage of error amplifier 412 increases, which causes the output voltage of error amplifier 412 and the input of error amplifier 413 to decrease. This then causes the output of error amplifier 413 to increase. Because the body biases of transistors 416 are coupled to the output of error amplifier 413 (i.e., V_(amp)), as V_(amp) increases, the switching threshold decreases. The switching threshold decreases because the voltage at the body of transistors 416 increases, which changes the voltage threshold of each transistor and subsequently its switching threshold. As shown, capacitor 418 and resistor 419 are coupled to the input and output of error amplifier 413 to create a feedback loop that stabilizes the error amplifier's switching threshold voltage. In this way, V_(amp) generating circuit 420 allows the switching threshold to be set, using V_(amp), independently of variations in process and temperature. V_(amp) is provided to the error amplifiers 460, 461, 462, and 463 in portions 432 and 434 of circuitry 400 so that those error amplifiers will operate independently of process and temperature.

Although illustrated in FIG. 4 as being a single transistor, if desirable transistor 415 may be implemented using two transistors with their drains and sources connected in parallel as shown in FIG. 4, with the drain of one gate connected to node 414, with the other gate connected to V_(amp), and with their bodies either floating or connected to ground.

Turning to portion 432 of circuitry 400, it can be seen that this portion is made up of OTA 426, error amplifiers 460 and 461, and capacitor 462. OTA 426 is preferably a replica of an OTA which circuitry 400 is being used to bias. As shown, the input to OTA 426 is a reference voltage of 0.4 Volts. Error amplifier 460 compares the output of OTA 426 to a reference voltage of 0.25 Volts. Error amplifier 461 similarly compares the output of error amplifier 460 to a reference voltage of 0.25 Volts. The output of error amplifier 461 (i.e., V_(bn)) is then coupled back to the bias input of OTA 426. Capacitor 462 is coupled between the inverting input and the output of error amplifier 461 to stabilize V_(bn). In this way, a bias voltage (i.e., V_(bn)) is generated that causes the output of OTA 426 to equal 0.25 Volts. This bias voltage can then be used to control the operation of other OTAs independently of process and temperature. For example, using this bias voltage, the bodies of transistors M_(1A) 310 and M_(1B) 312 (FIG. 3A) may be placed in forward bias and their voltage thresholds lowered so that OTA 300 can function with a supply voltage of less than 1 Volt.

Turning to portion 434 of circuitry 400, it can be seen that this portion is made up of resistors 480 and 481, transistor 442, error amplifiers 462 and 463, and capacitor 482. As illustrated, resistors 480 and 481 and transistor 442 create a variable voltage V_(Z) at the node between resistors 480 and 481 based upon the signal, V_(L), generated at the gate and body of transistor 442. This variable voltage is then provided to the inverting input of error amplifier 462. Error amplifier 462 compares this voltage to a voltage reference of 0.25 Volts. Error amplifier 462 similarly compares the output of error amplifier 462 to a voltage reference of 0.25 Volts. The output of error amplifier 463 then drives the signal, V_(L), provided to the gate and body of transistor 442. Capacitor 482 is coupled between the inverting input and output of error amplifier 463 to stabilize V_(L). In this way, a control voltage (i.e., V_(L)) can be provided to establish when an IR (i.e., voltage) drop occurs and transfer the drop with an appropriate ratio to level shifters M₇ 326, R_(1A) 328, R_(1B) 330 and M₁₄ 358, R_(2A) 360, R_(2B) 362 (FIG. 3A) independently of process and temperature.

Referring back to FIG. 3A, it can be seen that body voltage V_(NR) 344 at the bodies of transistors M₄ 340 and M_(4B) 342 can be used to determine the amplifier gain. If the current drawn by transistors M₄ 340 or M_(4B) 342 is too large, OTA 300 may develop a hysteresis (i.e., where changes in the input may not produce the expected change in the output until the change becomes large and there is a sudden jump in the output to the expected value). The hysteresis may cause OTA 300 to behave like a Schmitt-trigger.

FIG. 5 illustrates the DC transfer characteristics that may be realized with an operational transconductance amplifier 300 as illustrated in FIG. 3A. As shown, when the transconductance gain of transistor M₄ 340 or M_(4B) 342, g_(m4), increases, the gain lines may approach a slope of infinity, and split (i.e., gain lines with increasing values and decreasing values have different values along the x-axis for the same values on the y-axis). This hysteresis behavior of OTA 300 may be undesirable.

In order to address this situation, a Schmitt-trigger oscillator (or bistable multi-vibrator) 500, as shown in FIG. 5B, may be used to control the transconductance of the cross-coupled pair of the OTA and prevent this hysteresis behavior. As illustrated, oscillator 500 includes a replica OTA 502 (which is a replica of an OTA that this circuit is being used to control), resistors 504, 506, and 508, capacitors 510, 512, and 514, and XNOR gate 516. Schmitt-trigger oscillator 500 oscillates at a frequency given by f₀=1/(2RC)·1/ln((1+β)/(1−β)), where β=V_(hyst)/V_(HL), and where V_(hyst) may be the difference between the trigger voltages for the rising and falling cases, and where V_(HL) is the difference between the high and low outputs. The onset of oscillation may be detected in Schmitt-trigger oscillator 500 through an XNOR gate 516.

XNOR gate 516 has an output that decreases when oscillations are present. Therefore, if the oscillator amplitude increases, V_(NR) is reduced, and, when the oscillator amplitude decreases, V_(NR) is increased. In practice, because the determined V_(NR) may cause oscillations in Schmitt-trigger oscillator 500 that are too fast for XNOR gate 516 to respond, a feedback loop 518 may be used to keep these unintended oscillations down. The resulting V_(NR) may be reduced through a gain less than, but close to, one, and applied to an OTA to keep the small-signal gain positive in the OTA.

FIG. 3B illustrates a circuit 390 including the OTA 300 described above in connection with FIG. 3A along with resistors R_(b) 392, R_(f) 394 and R_(i) 396. As shown, resistors 392 may be used without affecting the overall gain of operational transconductance amplifier (OTA) 300, if R_(f)<<A·(R_(i)∥R_(f)∥R_(b)) where R_(i) is the value of resistors 396, R_(f) is the value of resistors 394, R_(b) is the value of resistors 392, and A is the open-loop DC gain of the amplifier. For example, if V_(DD) is 0.5 Volts and the input and output of OTA 300 are 0.25 Volts, to push V_(cm,vg) to 0.4 Volts, R_(b)=2/3·(R₁∥R₂). The output common-mode level, V_(cm,o), may be set to V_(DD)/2 so the output voltage signal may swing about the same magnitude in either direction. In certain embodiments, where more than one stage is used in the circuit design, the V_(cm,o) of the previous stage, may drive the input of the next stage. Resistors 392 can also be replaced by current sources implemented with transistors—see, e.g., K. Bult, “Analog Design In Deep Sub-Micron CMOS,” Proceedings European Solid-State Circuits Conference (ESSCIRC), September 2000, pp. 11-17, and S. Karthikeyan, S. Mortezapour, A. Tammineedi, and E. Lee, “Low Voltage Analog Circuit Design Based On Biased Inverting Opamp Configuration,” IEEE Trans. Circuits Syst. II, vol. 47, no. 3, pp. 176-184, March 2000, which are hereby incorporated by reference herein in their entireties.

FIG. 6 illustrates a low-voltage tunable damped integrator 610 in accordance with certain embodiments of the present invention. As shown, integrator 610 includes an OTA 626, which may be identical to the first stage of the OTA described above in connection with FIG. 3A. In order to turn on the gate-input devices of OTA 626 when the CM voltages of integrator 610 inputs (V_(in) ⁻ 612 and V_(in) ⁺ 614) and outputs (V_(out) ⁺ 616 and V_(out) ⁻ 618) are both V_(DD)/2 (i.e., 0.25 Volts), a common level virtual ground V_(cm,vg) across the inputs of OTA 626 may be manipulated. Such a common level virtual ground may be maintained by supply resistors 622 to V_(DD) (i.e., 0.5 Volts) at the inputs of OTA 626. Supply resistors 622 may be used without affecting the overall gain of integrator 610, if R₂<<A·(R₁∥R₂∥R_(b)) as mentioned above in connection with FIG. 1B. The output common-mode level, V_(cm,o), may be set to V_(DD)/2 so the output voltage signal may swing about the same magnitude in either direction. In certain embodiments, where more than one stage is used in the circuit design, the V_(cm,o) of the previous stage, may drive the input of the next stage.

The tuning capacitors may be able to compensate for possible manufacturing variations in the transistors within integrator 610. As shown, transistors 628 and 640 may be used as tunable capacitances between gate node 630 and source/drain node 632 and gate node 638 and source/drain node 642, respectively. Gate nodes 630 and 638 are at 0.4 Volts and source/drain nodes 632 and 642 are at 0.25 Volts with the capacitance being tuned through the body voltage of transistors 628 and 640 (i.e., V_(tune)). Fixed shunt capacitors, C_(fixed) 636, across OTA 626 may reduce the voltage dependence and improve the density of integrator 610. For example, if C_(fixed) 636 is a 1 pF capacitor, the tuning range of transistors 628 and 640 may be from 0.8 pF to 1.2 pF for a tune voltage from 0 to 0.5 Volts.

FIG. 7 illustrates, on a block diagram level, how an integrated fifth-order, low-pass, elliptic filter 700 may implemented in accordance with certain embodiments of the invention. As shown integrated filter 700 may include elliptic filter 710, voltage controlled oscillator 712, XOR gate 714, filter 716, biasing circuitry 718, 720, 722, and 726, and resistors 732 and 734.

Fifth-order low-pass filter 700 may be constructed using a combination of the techniques discussed earlier, for example, using tunable capacitors, low-voltage OTAs, and a multiple stage amplifier design. Low-pass filter 710 may be implemented as described below in connection with FIG. 8A. Voltage-controlled oscillator 712 may be implemented as described below in connection with FIG. 8B. A phase lock loop (PLL) including VCO 712, an XOR gate 714, and an external loop filter 716 is used to tune filter 710, thereby changing the operating characteristics. XOR gate 714 is used as a phase detector by comparing the output of VCO 712 with the output of another clock. The output of XOR 714 may be filtered by external loop filter 716. Error amplifier biasing circuitry 718 may be used to generate V_(amp) for V_(L) biasing circuitry 720 and V_(bn) circuitry 722, which all may be constructed as set forth above in connection with FIG. 4. The V_(L) biasing circuitry may generate a level shifting voltage V_(L) that is used by the OTAs in V_(bn) circuitry 722 and V_(NR) circuitry 726, which may be constructed as set forth above in connection with FIG. 4 and FIG. 5B, respectively. As shown, V_(bn) circuitry 722 may use a V_(ref) of 0.4 Volts and generate a V_(bn) used to forward bias certain transistors in the low-voltage circuit as described above. V_(NR) circuitry 726 may use V_(bn), V_(L), R₁ 732, and R₂ 734 to generate V_(NR) as shown in FIGS. 3 and 5B.

FIG. 8A illustrates low-voltage fifth order low-pass elliptic filter 710 in accordance with certain embodiments of the present invention. As shown, filter 710 is composed of five OTAs 810, 812, 814, 816, and 818. These OTAs may be substantially identical to the OTA illustrated in connection with FIG. 3A. Each OTA may additionally use V_(tune), V_(neg), V_(bn), and V_(L) (not shown in FIG. 8A) as provided by supporting circuitry shown in FIG. 7 and discussed in connection with FIGS. 3, 4 and 5B. Filter 710 is designed with multiple resistors and capacitors as known in the art to achieve the desired operational characteristics.

An example of some values for transistor sizes and other components for the circuit 710 of FIG. 8A can be found below:

Resistors Value (kΩ) Capacitors Value (pF) R 300 C1 9.2 R1 30 C2 13.1 R2 50 C3 20.2 R3 40 C4 8.8 R4 66.7 C5 5.3 R5 57.2 C6 1.8 C7 5.7 C8 2.9

FIG. 8B illustrates an embodiment of a low-voltage, voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO) 712 in accordance with certain embodiments of the present invention. As shown, VCO 712 may be constructed using tunable integrators formed from OTAs 820, 822, and 824 (as described herein) and resistors R_(a) 826, R_(b) 828, R_(VDD) 830, and capacitors C_(a) 838 matched to those in the filter with which the VCO is being used (e.g., the filter described above in connection with FIG. 8A). The oscillator frequency, f₀, is chosen to be close to the second zero of the filter, 280 kHz. The OTAs have enough gain-bandwidth to set a phase lag of 60 degrees per stage along with the required gain of greater than 1, at f₀, to reliably sustain oscillations. The oscillator has a nominal frequency of oscillation given by:

$f_{0} = \frac{\sqrt{3}}{2\pi \; R_{a}C_{a}}$

and oscillations are possible only when R_(a)≧2R_(b). For example, the following values may be used in certain embodiments of the invention: R_(a)=427 kΩ; R_(b)=207 kΩ; R_(VDD)=93 kΩ; and Ca=2.3 pF.

FIG. 9 is an illustration of a track-and-hold circuit 910 implemented using an Operational Transconductance Amplifier (OTA) 912 in accordance with certain embodiments of the present invention. OTA 912 may be implemented using the OTA described above in connection with FIG. 3A. As previously described herein, OTA 912 may be designed to have a high gain for an input common-mode voltage of 0.4 Volts and an output common-mode voltage of 0.25 Volts. At terminals V_(in) ⁻ 914 and V_(in) ⁺ 916, the common-mode is 0.25 Volts. R₁ 918, R₂ 920, and R₃ 922 may be sized so as to provide a bias voltage of 0.4 Volts at node 924 and node 926 for some embodiments of this circuit. Selections of these resistors are described above in connection with FIG. 1B. Other bias voltages may be used in different implementations of this circuit. In order to implement the circuit with unity gain, R₁ 918 and R₂ 920 may be equally sized. Alternatively, R₁ 918 and R₂ 920 can be sized differently to provide non-unity gain in the circuit. Thus, for example, R₁ 918 and R₂ 920 may be equally sized, and R₃ 922 may be one-third the size of R₁ 918 and R₂ 920 in the circuit illustrated.

Capacitor C₁ 928 may be sized such that capacitors C₁ 928 and C₂ 930 and resistors R₁ 918 and R₂ 920, maintain the relation R₁C₁=R₂C₂. This relation allows a pole introduced by R₂ 920 and C₂ 930 to be cancelled by a zero introduced by R₁ 918 and C₁ 928. C₂ 930 may be sized as large as possible given the size of the OTA 912 and the speed and noise requirements of circuit 910.

Although specific examples of component requirements are set forth above, these requirements may be altered to implement different embodiments of this circuit. For example, with a different embodiment of OTA 912, other voltage levels may be appropriate. As with previously mentioned embodiments of OTAs, OTA 912 may use tuning and biasing circuitry as shown in FIG. 4.

In operation, circuit 910 may track a voltage presented at inputs 914 and 916 or hold a voltage for a time. When M₁ 932 is closed and M₂ 934 is open, the circuit may track at terminals V_(out) ⁻ 936 and V_(out) ⁺ 938 the voltages at terminals V_(in) ⁻ 914 and V_(in) ⁺ 916. When M₂ 934 is closed and M₁ 932 is open, the circuit may hold the last voltage tracked at terminals V_(in) ⁻ 914 and V_(in) ⁺ 916. M₁ 932 and M₂ 934 should not be closed at the same time. Transistors M₁ 932, M₂ 934, 940, and 942 may have a gate to body coupling to lower the voltage threshold and to operate the gates closer to moderate inversion. In some embodiments, sample-and-hold architecture 910 may be extended to develop a pipelined Analog to Digital Converter (ADC) and Digital to Analog Converter (DAC) or may be the first stage in a switched-operational amplifier realization of a switched-capacitor circuit.

FIG. 10 illustrates a gate-input operational transconductance amplifier 1010 with intrinsic common-mode rejection. The first stage of OTA 1010 uses PMOS input transistors M₁ 1012 and M₂ 1014 that form a differential pair and that operate with a DC common-mode input of 0.1 Volts. The signal common-mode (not shown) is V_(DD)/2 (i.e., 0.25 Volts). The difference between the signal common-mode and the DC common-mode input (i.e., the virtual ground) is maintained by the resistor technique shown in FIG. 1B where OTA 100 is replaced by OTA 1010. As illustrated, level-shifting and common-mode biasing techniques are used similarly to that described above. The output common-mode of OTA 1010 is set to 0.1 Volts to ensure proper biasing of the outputs connected to transistors M₇ 1016 and M₈ 1018. Transistors M₃ 1020 and M₄ 1022 form active loads that act as current source loads for the differential-mode signal. Resistors Rc 1024 detect the output common-mode voltage of the stage and feed it back to the gates of transistors M₃ 1020 and M₄ 1022 so that transistors M₃ 1020 and M₄ 1022 are diode connected for common-mode signals. The cross-coupled transistors M₅ 1026 and M₆ 1028 act as differential negative resistance loads to improve the DC gain. For common-mode signals, transistors M₅ 1026 and M₆ 1028 are diode connected. A bias voltage Vc1 1030 to the bodies of input transistors M₁ 1012 and M₂ 1014 is used to control the DC output common-mode level as discussed above in connection with the OTA of FIG. 3A.

As shown, transistors M₃ 1020, M₄ 1022, M₅ 1026, and M₆ 1028 are body-gate coupled so that the body transconductances of the transistors add to their gate transconductances. The resulting forward bias on the source-body junction reduces the voltage threshold and raises the inversion level of the device to being close to moderate inversion.

The DC current ibias1 may be generated in a similar manner to that shown in FIG. 4 for V_(L). As illustrated, ibias1 is used to create a voltage shift across resistors Rc 1024 to bias the gate of M₃ 1020 and M₄ 1022.

The DC gains in differential-mode, A_(diff), and in common-mode, A_(cm), for one stage may be given by:

$\begin{matrix} {A_{diff} = \frac{g_{m\; 1}}{\left\lbrack {g_{{ds}\; 1} + g_{{ds}\; 3} + g_{{ds}\; 5} + {1/R_{1}} - \left( {g_{m\; 5} + g_{{mb}\; 5}} \right)} \right\rbrack}} \\ {A_{c\; m} = \frac{g_{m\; 1}}{\left\lbrack {g_{m\; 3} + g_{{mb}\; 3} + g_{m\; 5} + g_{{mb}\; 5} + g_{{ds}\; 1} + g_{{ds}\; 3} + g_{{ds}\; 5}} \right\rbrack}} \end{matrix}$

where g_(mi), g_(mbi), and g_(dsi) denote the transconductance, body transconductance and output conductance of device M_(i) respectively. Transconductance g_(m3) is usually larger than transconductance g_(m1) by a factor close to the electron hole mobility ratio, typically about two to three, when M₃ 1020 and M₄ 1022 operate at the about the same current level as M₁ 1012 and M₂ 1014. The common-mode gain, A_(cm), which is typically intrinsically smaller than one, is reduced due to loading by the output conductances and transconductances of M₅ 1026 and M₆ 1028.

The negative differential conductance in M₅ 1026 and M₆ 1028 may be conservatively sized such that it cancels out 60 percent of the output conductance and provides a DC gain boost around 8 dB. Alternatively, the body terminals of M₅ 1026 and M₆ 1028 can be connected to a body voltage, V_(NR), as described above in connection with transistors M_(4A) 340 and M_(4B) 342 of FIG. 3A and as described in FIGS. 5A and 5B.

As shown in FIG. 10, stage two of OTA 1010 has a similar topology to that the first stage. In fact, transistors M₉ 1036, M₁₀ 1038, M₁₁ 1040, and M₁₂ 1042 operate in a similar manner to transistors M₃ 1020, M₄ 1022, M₅ 1026, and M₆ 1028. Some differences between the two stages may include the output common-mode voltage and the biasing chosen for Vc2 1044 and ibias2 1046. For example, stage two biasing may be different than stage one biasing when certain operational characteristics are desired. In between the two stages, Miller compensation may be used. Series resistors Rz 1050 for the capacitors Cc 1048 may further be used to move the zero due to Cc 1048 to improve the phase margin and stability.

An example of some values for transistor sizes and other components for the circuit of FIG. 10 can be found below:

First Stage Second stage Transistors W (μm) L (nm) Transistors W (μm) L (nm) M1 388 500 M1 388 500 M2 388 500 M2 388 500 M3 388 500 M3 388 500 M4 388 500 M4 388 500 M5  12 500 M5 240 500 M6  12 500 M6 240 500 Resistors and Capacitors Currents Rc 33 kΩ ibais1 12.75 uA Rz  4 kΩ ibais2    3 uA Cc 3.1 pF 

FIGS. 11A and 11B illustrate third-order, continuous-time sigma-delta (ΣΔ) modulators 1110 and 1140 in accordance with certain embodiments of the present invention. ΣΔ modulators 1110 and 1140 are implemented in a fully differential form with active RC integrators.

As shown, modulator 1110 includes OTAs 1101, 1102, 1103, clocked comparator 1104, digital-to-analog converters (DACs) 1105, resistors 1111, 1112, 1121, 1122, 1131, and 1132, and capacitors 1113, 1123, and 1133. Modulator 1140 includes OTAs 1101, 1102, 1103, clocked comparator 1104, digital-to-analog converters (DACs) 1141, resistors 1111, 1112, 1121, 1122, 1131, and 1132, and capacitors 1113, 1123, and 1133.

OTAs 1101, 1102, and 1103 may be implemented using a body-input, two-stage OTA with Miller compensation. Such an OTA is illustrated, for example, in connection with FIG. 2A above. OTAs 1101, 1102, and 1103 may additionally or alternatively be implemented using any other suitable OTAs, such as those described in connection with FIGS. 1 and 3A.

The ratios of the resistors coupled to each amplifier (e.g., R_(1a) 1111/R_(1b) 1112 for error amplifier 1101) represent the modulator coefficients. The modulator coefficients may be obtained from a discrete-time prototype modulator through an impulse-invariant transformation with the feedback DAC waveform being taken into account, for example as described in James A. Cherry and W. Martin Snelgrove, “Excess Loop Delay in Continuous-Time Delta-Sigma Modulators”, IEEE Transactions On Circuits And Systems-II: Analog And Digital Signal Processing, vol. 46, no. 4, pp. 376-389, April 1999, which is hereby incorporated by reference herein in its entirety.

In some embodiments, the component values shown in the following table may be used. These component values have been selected for a signal bandwidth of 25 KHz, which is suitable for audio applications. Preferably, high-resistivity polysilicon layer resistors and metal-insulator-metal (MIM) capacitors are used. Obviously, other values and types of resistors and capacitors could be used in accordance with the invention.

Component Value R_(1a) 275 kΩ R_(1b) 86 kΩ R_(2a) 88 kΩ R_(2b) 145 kΩ R_(3a) 66 kΩ R_(3b) 93 kΩ C₁ 31.25 pF C₂ 7.8 pF C₃ 5.2 pf

In some embodiments of the present invention, pulse shaping and time delay are used to modify performance of ΣΔ modulators 1110 and 1140. Return-to-zero pulse shaping (i.e., the output of DACs 1105 and 1141 in the modulators are cleared after certain clock cycles) is used to avoid inter-symbol-interference (or the memory effect) that can exist in continuous-time ΣΔ modulators. A ten percent time delay (or any other suitable delay) on the DAC waveforms may be used to minimize the effect of parasitic loop delays and to allow the comparator outputs to fully settle.

More particularly, a return-to-open technique may be used to implement return-to-zero pulse shaping in accordance with the present invention. This technique leaves the outputs of the DACs floating (or open-circuited). Because the DAC outputs are open-circuited, current will not flow to the integrating capacitors C₁ 1113, C₂ 1123, and C₃ 1133 from the DACS. Rather, during the floating intervals, the DAC output voltages are pulled either down or up, through the resistors to the amplifier's input level, which is set in some embodiments to V_(DD)/2.

FIGS. 12A and 12B illustrate DACPs 1105 and 1106 and DACNs 1141 and 1142, respectively, which implement the return-to-open technique, in accordance with certain embodiments of the present invention. As shown, these DACs include transistors 1216, 1218, 1220, 1222, 1230, 1232, and 1234. The body terminals of these transistors are biased at 0.25 Volts. The reference voltages (i.e., the positive and negative rails) are 0.5 Volts and 0 Volts. In other embodiments, different biasing and reference voltages may be appropriate for operation of the circuits.

The operation of the DACs is described as follows. A clock input φ is provided to the gates of transistors 1220, 1222, and 1234. Transistors 1216, 1218, and 1220 form a tri-state buffer. When the clock φ is low transistor 1220 turns off, and node 1224 is reset to 0.5 Volts by transistor 1222. When the clock φ is high, node 1224 may be coupled to 0.5 Volts or 0 Volts depending on the value of the input and the corresponding states of transistors 1216 and 1218.

As shown in FIG. 12A, the signal at node 1224 is buffered by buffer stage 1236. Thus, when clock φ is low, transistor 1234 turns off and causes the output to float. When clock φ is high, the output buffers the signal at node 1224.

As shown in FIG. 12B, in some embodiments, a split-buffering technique may be used with ΣΔ modulators to avoid inter-stage signal coupling. In modulator 1100, when one buffer is used, the internal signals of the integrators may couple at the outputs of the DACs and thereby degrade the performance of the modulator. With a split-buffer approach, buffers 1236, 1238, and 1240 of FIG. 12B are used to separate each integrator and to avoid coupling, as shown in FIG. 11B.

Although FIGS. 11B and 12B illustrate DACs with multiple outputs, multiple DACs each with a single output that are connected to the same comparator may also be used to implement this aspect of the present invention. Also, although the DACs in FIGS. 12A and 12B are illustrated as incorporating circuitry for creating a high impedance between (i) the DACs and (ii) the capacitors and OTAs as illustrated herein, this high impedance could be created by any suitable circuitry between these points.

In some embodiments, a low jitter external clock may be used and an internal circuit may generate different phases of the clock if the continuous-time modulator is sensitive to clock jitter in the return-to-open circuit.

Comparator 1104 in continuous-time ΣΔ modulators 1110 and 1140 serves two purposes, sampling and comparison, and may be a clocked or a latched comparator. FIG. 13 illustrates one embodiment of a comparator 1104 that may be used in accordance with certain embodiments of the present invention. As shown, comparator 1104 consists of two stages, namely pre-amplifier 1312 and latch 1314. Both stages use the body terminals as inputs. In certain embodiments, because the bodies of both PMOS and NMOS transistors are used to pass signals in both stages, a CMOS process with both n-well and p-well, or a triple-well option, may be used.

As illustrated, pre-amplifier 1312 includes clock signal φ, inverse clock signal φ, and transistors 1320, 1322, 1324, and 1326. The gates of transistors 1320 and 1322 are coupled to clock signal φ, while the gates of transistors 1324 and 1326 are coupled to inverse clock signal φ. As shown, transistors 1320 and 1322 form a differential pair and transistors 1324 and 1326 form an active load. In operation when clock φ is low, transistors 1320 and 1322 turn on and amplify the input. The amplified signal may then be stored in the parasitic capacitors at the output nodes. When clock φ is high, transistors 1320 and 1322 turn off and transistors 1324 and 1326 turn on. Transistors 1324 and 1326 have their body terminal connected to ground.

Latch 1314 includes clock signal φ, inverse clock signal φ, transistors 1328 and 1330 (which form a cross-coupled pair), and transistors 1332 and 1334 (which form a cross-coupled pair). When clock φ is high, cross-coupled transistors 1328 and 1330 turn on and the input signal is latched. When clock φ is low, transistors 1328 and 1330 turn off and transistors 1332 and 1334 turn on, which allows for a new input signal to be latched. Latch 1314 may be a regenerative circuit whose speed is proportional to the Gm of the transistors used in latch 1314 and a load capacitor (not shown).

Other embodiments, extensions, and modifications of the ideas presented above are comprehended and within the reach of one versed in the art upon reviewing the present disclosure. Accordingly, the scope of the present invention in its various aspects should not be limited by the examples and embodiments presented above. The individual aspects of the present invention, and the entirety of the invention should be regarded so as to allow for such design modifications and future developments within the scope of the present disclosure. The present invention is limited only by the claims that follow. 

1. A operational transconductance amplifier (OTA), comprising: an active load; a differential pair of transistors having a first transistor and a second transistor, each of the first transistor and the second transistor having a gate, having a body coupled to an input signal, and having a drain coupled to the active load; and a level shift bias circuit that creates a common mode feedback and that is coupled to the gate of the first transistor, the gate of the second transistor, the drain of the first transistor, and the drain of the second transistor.
 2. The OTA of claim 1, wherein the active load includes a third transistor.
 3. The OTA of claim 2, wherein the third transistor in the active load has a body-source junction that is forward biased.
 4. The OTA of claim 1, wherein the OTA operates on a half-volt supply voltage.
 5. The OTA of claim 1, further comprising a cross-coupled pair which adds a negative resistance to the drain of the first transistor and to the drain of the second transistor.
 6. The OTA of claim 5, wherein the cross-coupled pair comprises: a fourth transistor having a source, a drain, a gate, and a body, wherein the drain is coupled to the drain of the first transistor; and a fifth transistor having an source, a drain, a gate, and a body, wherein the body is coupled to the drain of the fourth transistor, and the drain is coupled to the body of the fourth transistor and the drain of the second transistor.
 7. The OTA of claim 1, wherein the level shift bias circuit comprises: a first resistor having a first side and a second side, wherein the first side is coupled to the drain of the first transistor; a second resistor having a first side and a second side, wherein the first side is coupled to the drain the second transistor; and a transistor having a source, wherein the source is coupled to the second side of the first resistor, the second side of the second resistor, the gate of the first transistor, and the gate of the second transistor.
 8. The OTA of claim 1, further comprising a second stage, comprising: an second active load; a second differential pair of transistors having a sixth transistor and a seventh transistor, each of the sixth transistor and the seventh transistor having a body, having a gate, and having a drain coupled to the active load, wherein the body of the sixth transistor is coupled to the drain of the second transistor; and a level shift bias circuit that creates a common mode feedback and that is coupled to the gate of the sixth transistor, the gate of the seventh transistor, the drain of the sixth transistor, and the drain of the seventh transistor.
 9. The OTA of claim 9, wherein a resistor and a capacitor are coupled between the drain of the second transistor and the drain of the sixth transistor.
 10. The OTA of claim 1, wherein the OTA is implemented as an Integrated Circuit.
 11. A operational transconductance amplifier (OTA) comprising: an active load; a differential pair of transistors having a first transistor and a second transistor, each of the first transistor and the second transistor having a source, having a gate coupled to an input signal, having a body coupled to a bias voltage, and having a drain coupled to the active load; and a level shift bias circuit that creates a common mode feedback and that is coupled to the drain of the first transistor, the drain of the second transistor, and the active load.
 12. The OTA of claim 11, wherein the active load includes a third transistor.
 13. The OTA of claim 12, wherein the third transistor in the active load has a body-source junction that is forward biased.
 14. The OTA of claim 11, wherein the OTA operates on a half-volt supply voltage.
 15. The OTA of claim 11, wherein the level shift bias circuit comprises: a first resistor having a first side and a second side, wherein the first side is coupled to the drain of the first transistor; a second resistor having a first side and a second side, wherein the first side is coupled to the drain of the second transistor; and a transistor having a drain, wherein the drain is coupled to the second side of the first resistor and the second side of the second resistor.
 16. The OTA of claim 11, further comprising a cross-coupled pair that adds a negative resistance to the drain of the first stage transistor and the drain of the second transistor.
 17. The OTA of claim 16, wherein the cross-coupled pair comprises: a fourth transistor having a source, a drain, a gate, and a body, wherein the drain is coupled to the drain of the first transistor; and a fifth transistor having a source, a drain, a gate, and a body, wherein the gate is coupled to the drain of the fourth transistor, and the drain is coupled to the gate of the fourth transistor and the drain of the second transistor.
 18. The OTA of claim 11, further comprising a common-mode feed forward.
 19. The OTA of claim 11, wherein the OTA is used to form an elliptic filter.
 20. The OTA of claim 11, wherein the OTA is used to form a voltage controlled oscillator.
 21. The OTA of claim 11, further comprising a second stage, comprising: a second active load; a differential pair of transistors having a sixth transistor and a seventh transistor, each of the sixth transistor and the seventh transistor having a source, having a gate coupled to the drain of the second transistor, having a body coupled to a bias voltage, and having a drain coupled to the active load; and a level shift bias circuit that creates a common mode feedback and that is coupled to the drain of the sixth transistor, the drain of the seventh transistor, and the active load.
 22. The OTA of claim 21, wherein a resistor and a capacitor are coupled between the second transistor and the sixth transistor.
 23. The OTA of claim 11, further comprising: a first resistor coupled between the gate of the first transistor and a supply voltage; a second resistor coupled between the gate of the first transistor and the input signal; and a third resistor coupled between the gate of the first transistor and a corresponding output signal of the OTA.
 24. The OTA of claim 11, wherein the OTA is implemented as an Integrated Circuit.
 25. An integrator, comprising: an operational transconductance amplifier (OTA) having a first input and a first output; a transistor having a gate coupled to the first input of the OTA, a source terminal, a drain terminal coupled to the source terminal and the first output of the OTA, and a body terminal coupled to a tuning voltage that controls a capacitance formed by the transistor; and a first resistor coupled between the first input of the OTA and the first output of the OTA; and a second resistor coupled between the first input of the OTA and an input signal.
 26. The integrator of claim 25, further comprising a capacitor coupled between the first input of the OTA and the first output of the OTA.
 27. The integrator of claim 25, further comprising a third resistor coupled between a supply voltage and the first input of the OTA.
 28. The integrator of claim 25, wherein the OTA comprises: an active load; a differential pair of transistors having a first transistor and a second transistor, each of the first transistor and the second transistor having a source, having a gate coupled to the first input of the OTA, having a body coupled to a bias voltage, and having a drain coupled to the first output of the OTA and the active load; and a level shift bias circuit that creates a common mode feedback and that is coupled to the drain of the first transistor, the drain of the second transistor, and the active load. 